Process for preparing 4-aminodiphenylamine intermediates

ABSTRACT

The invention is directed to a method of producing one or more 4-aminodiphenylamine intermediates comprising the steps: a. bringing an aniline or aniline derivative and nitrobenzene into reactive contact; and b. reacting the aniline and nitrobenzene in a confined zone at a suitable time and temperature, in the presence of a mixture comprising a strong organic base, or equivalent thereof, and an oxidant comprising hydrogen peroxide in an amount of from about 0.01 to about 0.60 moles of hydrogen peroxide to moles of nitrobenzene.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation of co-pending U.S. patent applicationSer. No. 10/444,524, filed May 23, 2003, entitled “Process for Preparing4-Aminodiphenylamine Intermediates,” which is incorporated herein byreference in its entirety; which, in turn, claims priority of U.S.Provisional Patent Application No. 60/432,285, filed Dec. 12, 2002 and60/446,621, filed Feb. 11, 2003, the entire contents of which areincorporated herein by reference.

BACKGROUND OF INVENTION

1. Field of Invention

The present invention relates to a process for preparing4-aminodiphenylamine intermediates.

2. Related Art

4-Aminodiphenylamines are widely used as intermediates in themanufacture of alkylated derivatives having utility as antiozonants andantioxidants, as stabilizers for monomers and polymers, and in variousspecialty applications. For example, reductive alkylation of4-aminodiphenylamine (4-ADPA) with methylisobutyl ketone providesN-(1,3-dimethylbutyl)-N′-phenyl-p-phenylene-diamine, which is a usefulantiozonant for the protection of various rubber products.

4-Aminodiphenylamine derivatives can be prepared in various ways. Anattractive synthesis is the reaction of an optionally substitutedaniline with an optionally substituted nitrobenzene in the presence of abase, as disclosed, for example, in U.S. Pat. No. 5,608,111 (to Stern etal.) and U.S. Pat. No. 5,739,403 (to Reinartz et al.). U.S. Pat. No.5,608,111 describes a process for the preparation of an optionallysubstituted 4-ADPA wherein in a first step optionally substitutedaniline and optionally substituted nitrobenzene are reacted (coupled) inthe presence of a base. In working examples, aniline and nitrobenzeneare reacted in the presence of tetramethylammonium hydroxide as thebase, and water and aniline are azeotropically removed during thecoupling reaction.

International publication WO 00/35853 discloses a method of preparationof intermediates of 4-aminodiphenylamine by the reaction of aniline withnitrobenzene in a liquid medium where the reaction system consists of asolution of salts of true zwitterions with hydroxides. A combination ofpotassium hydroxide and betaine hydrate is exemplified. The reaction maytake place in the presence of free oxygen.

EP publication 566 783 describes a method of manufacture of4-nitrodiphenylamine by the reaction of nitrobenzene with aniline in themedium of a polar aprotic solvent in a strongly alkaline reactionsystem. A phase transfer catalyst such as tetrabutylammonium hydrogensulfate is employed. This reference requires that the reaction becarried out in an oxygen-free atmosphere in order to prevent undesirableside reactions caused by oxidation.

U.S. Pat. No. 5,117,063 and International publication WO 01/14312disclose processes for preparing 4-nitrodiphenylamine and4-nitrosodiphenhylamine, using various bases, includingtetraalkylammonium hydroxides alone or an inorganic base with crownether as a phase transfer catalyst. The use of aerobic conditions isdescribed, including by example. Less azobenzene is reported forreactions at anaerobic conditions with aniline as the solvent or ataerobic conditions with DMSO, and other similar solvents, as thesolvent.

U.S. Pat. No. 5,612,483 describes a process for preparing nitrosubstituted arylamines, including 4-nitro-diphenylamine, comprisingreaction of an aryl amine with a nitroaryl amine, in the presence ofbases while introducing oxygen in polar solvents. The patent states thatthe reactions lead to good yields of the corresponding amines with theuse of simple bases, preferably inorganic bases.

U.S. Pat. No. 6,140,538 describes a process for preparing an optionallysubstituted 4-aminodiphenylamine comprising reacting an optionallysubstituted aniline and an optionally substituted nitrobenzene in thepresence of water and a base while controlling the water content so asto ensure a molar ratio of water to the base charged of not less thanabout 4:1 at the start of the coupling reaction and not less than about0.6:1 at the end of the coupling reaction to produce4-nitrodiphenylamine and/or 4-nitrosodiphenylamine and/or salts thereof.The coupling reaction is followed by a hydrogenation reaction where thecoupling reaction product is hydrogenated in the presence of ahydrogenation catalyst and added water so as to ensure a molar ratio oftotal water to base of at least about 4:1 at the end of hydrogenation.Aqueous and organic phases are obtained and the optionally substituted4-aminodiphenylamine is recovered from the organic phase and the aqueousphase containing the base is recycled.

U.S. Pat. No. 6,395,933 describes a process for producing one or more4-aminodiphenylamine intermediates comprising the steps of bringing ananiline or aniline derivative and nitrobenzene into reactive contact;and reacting the aniline and nitrobenzene in a confined zone at asuitable time and temperature, in the presence of a mixture comprising astrong base, a suitable phase transfer catalyst and an oxidant. Certainphase transfer catalysts may also function as the strong base, such astetraalkylammonium hydroxides. Examples are given that show increasedselectivity for reactions in the presence of air or hydrogen peroxide,with KOH as the strong base and tetramethylammonium chloride as thephase transfer catalyst. The example with hydrogen peroxide does notindicate an optimum amount of peroxide in going from a mole ratio ofH₂O₂/NB=0 to 1.0, whereas conversion steadily dropped as mole ratioincreased. No examples were given for an oxidant with a phase transfercatalysts that also functions as the strong base.

The objective of the present invention is to provide a superior methodfor producing one or more 4-ADPA intermediates by reacting aniline andnitrobenzene in the presence of a strong organic base, or equivalentthereof, and an oxidant comprising hydrogen peroxide.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

In brief summary, the primary embodiment of the present invention is fora method of producing one or more 4-aminodiphenylamine intermediatescomprising the steps of:

-   a. bringing an aniline or aniline derivative and nitrobenzene into    reactive contact; and-   b. reacting the aniline and nitrobenzene in a confined zone at a    suitable time and temperature, in the presence of a mixture    comprising a strong organic base, or equivalent thereof, and an    oxidant comprising hydrogen peroxide in an amount of from about 0.01    to about 0.60 moles of hydrogen peroxide to moles of nitrobenzene.

Other embodiments of the present invention encompass details aboutreaction mixtures, ratios of ingredients, particular strong organicbases and reaction conditions, all of which are hereinafter disclosed inthe following discussion of each of the facets of the present invention.

SUMMARY OF THE DRAWINGS

In the attached drawings:

FIG. 1 is a graph showing the optimization H₂O₂ molar charge for recyclebase based on Example 8;

FIG. 2 is a graph showing the optimization H₂O₂ molar charge for freshbase based on Example 9;

FIG. 3 is a graph showing the effect of peroxide concentration onphenazine level based on data from Example 6;

FIG. 4 is a graph showing the effect of peroxide concentration onphenazine level based on data from Example 8; and

FIG. 5 is a graph showing the effect of peroxide with inorganic base asdiscussed in Comparative Example 2.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The present invention is directed to a method, as described above, formaking intermediates of 4-ADPA that has superior yield and selectivityfor those intermediates. Such intermediates comprise 4-nitroso- and/or4-nitrodiphenylamines (p-NDPA and 4-NDPA, respectively) and saltsthereof. The intermediates may then be hydrogenated to produce4-aminodiphenylamine.

While aniline most effectively couples with nitrobenzene, certainaniline derivatives comprising amides such as formanilide, phenylureaand carbanilide as well as thiocarbanilide, or mixtures thereof, can besubstituted for aniline or used in conjunction with aniline to produce4-ADPA intermediates.

Although the reactants of the method of the invention are referred to as“aniline” and “nitrobenzene”, and when it is 4-ADPA that is beingmanufactured the reactants are in fact aniline and nitrobenzene, it isunderstood that the reactants may also comprise substituted aniline andsubstituted nitrobenzene. Typical examples of substituted anilines thatmay be used in accordance with the process of the present inventioninclude but are not limited to 2-methoxyaniline, 4-methoxy-aniline,4-chloroaniline, p-toluidine, 4-nitroaniline, 3-bromoaniline,3-bromo-4-aminotoluene, p-aminobenzoic acid, 2,4-diaminotoluene,2,5-dichloroaniline, 1,4-phenylene diamine, 4,4′-methylene dianiline,1,3,5-triaminobenzene, and mixtures thereof. Typical examples ofsubstituted nitrobenzenes that may be used in accordance with theprocess of the present invention include but are not limited to o-andm-methylnitrobenzene, o- and m-ethylnitrobenzene, o- andm-methoxynitrobenzene, and mixtures thereof.

The molar ratio of aniline to nitrobenzene in the process according tothe present invention is not particularly important, the process will beeffective with an excess of either.

In the method of the invention, the hydrogen peroxide may be supplied asan aqueous solution comprising from about 3 wt. % to about 50 wt. %hydrogen peroxide.

The intermediates of the invention may be reduced to produce4-aminodiphenylamine. The reduction can be carried out by any knownmethod, including the use of hydrogen that involves the use of ahydrogenation catalyst. Details concerning choice of catalyst and otheraspects of the hydrogenation reaction, such as the addition of water,may be found in U.S. Pat. No. 6,140,538. Hydrogenation end points can bedetermined by the reaction time and/or the hydrogen flow profile and/orby one of various instrumental techniques that are known to one skilledin the art. Other means of reduction that do not involve the direct useof hydrogen and are known to one skilled in the art, can also be used toreduce the 4-ADPA intermediates or substituted derivatives thereof to4-ADPA or substituted derivatives thereof.

The 4-aminodiphenylamine produced may be reductively alkylated to analkylated derivative of the 4-aminodiphenylamine, which are usefuil forthe protection of rubber products, in which process an optionallysubstituted aniline and an optionally substituted nitrobenzene arecoupled and subsequently reduced according to the invention process,after which the 4-aminodiphenylamine so obtained is reductivelyalkylated to an alkylated derivative of the 4-aminodiphenylamineaccording to methods known to the person skilled in this technicalfield. Typically, the 4-ADPA and a suitable ketone, or aldehyde, arereacted in the presence of hydrogen and platinum-on-carbon as catalyst.Hydrogenation end points can be determined by the reaction time and/orthe hydrogen flow profile and/or by one of various instrumentaltechniques that are known to one skilled in the art. Suitable ketonesinclude methylisobutyl ketone, acetone, methylisoamyl ketone, and2-octanone. See for example U.S. Pat. No. 4,463,191, incorporated hereinby reference and Banerjee et al, J. Chem. Soc. Chem. Comm. 18, 1275-1276(1988). Suitable catalysts can be the same as, but not limited to, thosedescribed above for obtaining the 4-ADPA.

Hydrogen peroxide is a superior oxidant to air, as the amount of airrequired to get a meaningful increase in selectivity would greatlyoverload any commercially economical condenser system, resulting in highlosses of organic compounds through the condenser. Moreover, even thoughpure oxygen would be more efficient than air, the use of pure oxygencreates an unsafe reaction environment. In addition, hydrogen peroxidedoes not require a solvent other than excess aniline.

The oxidant may be introduced into the confined zone after the start ofnitrobenzene being introduced into the confined zone, or theintroduction of the oxidant into the confined zone may be completedbefore the completion of nitrobenzene being introduced into the confinedzone, or both.

The nitrobenzene and aniline react to form a Meisenheimer complex andthe oxidant is optimally introduced into the confined zone at the pointwhere the concentration of said Meisenheimer complex is the highest. Theoxidant may be fed at a variable rate such as to optimally match thereaction kinetics for formation and disappearance of the Meisenheimercomplex made from nitrobenzene and aniline. The point of entry of theoxidant into the confined zone may be at or near the point of entry ofnitrobenzene.

Coupling of aniline with nitrobenzene in the presence of a base proceedsvia a Meisenheimer complex, which undergoes intramolecular oxidation top-NODPA salt and intermolecular oxidation by nitrobenzene, and someprocess impurities, to 4-NDPA salt. Peroxide improves selectivity byoxidizing the complex faster than nitrobenzene and the impurities do andby oxidizing the complex preferentially to oxidizing aniline. Thus anyprocess variable that affects the rates of Meisenheimer formation andintramolecular oxidation, such as impurity levels in recycle streams,reaction temperature, water removal rate and nitrobenzene feed rate willaffect the optimum peroxide mole ratio and the effective range forperoxide. Furthermore, peroxide concentration can affect the localizedselectivity for peroxide reacting with Meisenheimer vs. aniline. Soalthough an effective range of H₂O₂/NB=0.01-0.2 is illustrated byexample for a particular reaction procedure with recycle base, and aswide as 0.01-0.46 with fresh base, it is envisaged that conditions canbe found for which the effective range is as wide as H₂O₂/NB=0.01-0.6.In addition, reaction profiles show that nitrobenzene reacts rapidly atthe start, when base level is highest, and more slowly near the end,when base level is lowest. Therefore, an alternative procedure forperoxide is to delay the start of peroxide and end it early, whileadding it at a fixed or variable rate when nitrobenzene reaction rate isin the mid range. Another alternative procedure is to add peroxidethroughout, but more slowly at the start and end. Yet anotheralternative procedure is to vary peroxide addition rate throughout. Theprocess of the invention is meant to apply to fresh base, recycle base,recycle base that has been recovered by electrolysis, such as describedin WO 2002034372, incorporated herein by reference, or by any otherprocedure, and to mixtures thereof.

In order to get the highest efficiency for the use of hydrogen peroxide,peroxide should be fed into the reactor at the point where theconcentration of the Meisenheimer complex made from aniline andnitrobenzene is the highest. This gives peroxide the maximum opportunityto react with Meisenheimer instead of with aniline. It can be expectedthat the optimum point of entry for peroxide in a commercial reactorshould be at or near the point of entry of nitrobenzene, sinceMeisenheimer concentration should be highest there. However, dependingon the configuration and operation of a commercial reactor, the optimumpoint of entry can vary somewhat, which can be determined by one skilledin the art.

A big advantage for the use of peroxide in the method of the inventionis that there is a great reduction of the amount of azobenzene that hasto be hydrogenated to aniline for recycle, as compared to a processwithout peroxide. For an existing 4-ADPA commercial facility, thistranslates to a significant amount of excess capacity for an anilinerecovery (from azobenzene) operation. This excess capacity can beutilized by feeding nitrobenzene to the azobenzene hydrogenation reactorto generate some aniline, which is a more expensive raw material for theprocess of the invention. For a new 4-ADPA facility, the greatly reducedazobenzene quantity can translate to a significant capital reduction forthe aniline recovery (from azobenzene) system. Alternatively, it cantranslate to a modest capital investment for a system that can convertboth nitrobenzene and azobenzene to aniline for recycle.

Strong organic bases particularly effective in the method of the presentinvention include quaternary ammonium hydroxide selected from the groupconsisting of tetramethylammonium hydroxide, tetrabutylammoniumhydroxide, methyltributylammonium hydroxide, benzyltrimethylammoniumhydroxide, tricaprylmethylammonium hydroxide, cetyltrimethylammoniumhydroxide and choline hydroxide and equivalent quaternary ammoniumalkoxides, acetates, carbonates, bicarbonates, cyanides, phenolics,phosphates, hydrogen phosphates, hypochlorites, borates, hydrogenborates, dihydrogen borates, sulfides, silicates, hydrogen silicates,dihydrogen silicates and trihydrogen silicates.

A preferred organic base is tetramethylammonium hydroxide.

The intermediates may be reduced to produce 4-aminodiphenylamine andbase may be recycled from the products of the reduction reaction, aloneor with make-up quantities of fresh base or purified recycle base orboth, for use in the reaction of the method of the invention. Morespecifically, the intermediates may be reduced to produce4-aminodiphenylamine, and base in the products of the reduction reactionmay be purified to remove some or all of the quaternary ammonium saltimpurities formed in the reactions of the coupling reaction of themethod of the invention and reduction reaction. The purified base may berecycled, as the sole base or in combination with unpurified recyclebase and/or together with make-up quantities of fresh base.

The reactive contact of the process of the invention is carried out inthe presence of an oxidant comprising hydrogen peroxide. When theorganic base is tetramethylammonium hydroxide, the hydrogen peroxide maybe supplied as an aqueous solution comprising from about 3 wt. % toabout 50 wt. % hydrogen peroxide, or, more preferred, as an aqueoussolution comprising from about 3 wt. % to about 7 wt. % hydrogenperoxide in an amount of from about 0.01 to about 0.5 moles of hydrogenperoxide to moles of nitrobenzene. More preferred is that the hydrogenperoxide be supplied as an aqueous solution comprising from about 15 wt.% to about 25 wt. % hydrogen peroxide in an amount of from about 0.01 toabout 0.45 moles of hydrogen peroxide to moles of nitrobenzene. Mostpreferred is that the hydrogen peroxide be supplied as an aqueoussolution comprising from about 25 wt. % to about 40 wt. % hydrogenperoxide in an amount of from about 0.01 to about 0.35 moles of hydrogenperoxide to moles of nitrobenzene.

Organic base, particularly tetramethylammonium hydroxide, may berecycled from the products of the reduction reaction, alone or withmake-up quantities of fresh base or purified recycle base or both, foruse in the reaction of said method. The hydrogen peroxide may then besupplied as an aqueous solution comprising from about 20 wt. % to about40 wt. % in an amount of from about 0.01 to about 0.25 moles of hydrogenperoxide to moles of nitrobenzene, or more preferred, wherein thehydrogen peroxide is provided in an amount of from about 0.06 to about0.21 moles of hydrogen peroxide to moles of nitrobenzene, or, still morepreferred, wherein the hydrogen peroxide is supplied in an amount offrom about 0.08 to about 0.17 moles of hydrogen peroxide to moles ofnitrobenzene. The hydrogen peroxide may be supplied as an aqueoussolution comprising from about 3 wt. % to about 7 wt. % in an amount offrom about 0.01 to about 0.20 moles of hydrogen peroxide to moles ofnitrobenzene, preferably from about 0.03 to about 0.16 moles of hydrogenperoxide to moles of nitrobenzene or, still more preferred, wherein thehydrogen peroxide is supplied in an amount of from about 0.06 to about0.12 moles of hydrogen peroxide to moles of nitrobenzene. Similareffective mole ratio ranges can be defined by one skilled in the art forother concentrations of hydrogen peroxide in the range of 3 wt. % to 50wt. %. It is also possible to get an equivalent selectivity with lesshydrogen peroxide for any peroxide concentration included herein byfeeding the peroxide for only part of the time that nitrobenzene is fed,or by varying the rate at which peroxide is fed, or both.

Purified recycle base may be used as the sole base or with make-upquantities of fresh base and the nitrobenzene feed time may be about 100minutes or less.

The reactive contact in the coupling reaction in the method of theinvention may be carried out at a temperature of from about 20° C. toabout 125° C., preferably from about 65° C. to about 90° C. Otherconditions for the reactive contact include pressures in the range offrom about 20 mbar to about atmospheric. Reaction time is typically lessthan about 4 hours. It is advantageous to agitate the reaction mixtureduring the entire reaction.

The invention is illustrated by the following non-limiting examples.

Analytical

Yields of individual components were determined by external standardHPLC, from the average of duplicate analyses. Approximately 0.06 gramsof material to be analyzed is accurately weighed into a 50-mL volumetricflask and diluted with a buffer solution containing 39% v/v water, 36%v/v acetonitrile, 24% v/v methanol and 1% v/v pH 7 buffer. The solutionis injected through a 10 μL loop onto a reversed phase Zorbax ODS HPLCcolumn (250×4.6 mm) using a binary gradient pumping system and thefollowing elution gradient at a constant flow rate of 1.5 mL/minute:Time, minutes % Eluant A % Eluant B 0 100 0 25 25 75 35 0 100 37.5 0 10038 100 0 40 100 0Eluant A is 75% v/v water, 15% v/v acetonitrile and 10% v/v methanol.Eluant B is 60% v/v acetonitrile and 40% v/v methanol. Detection is UVat 254 nm.Experimental

Experimental procedures are described within each example. Experimentswith recycle base used typical samples from a commercial plant operatingwithout peroxide addition, for which TMAH assay (24.4 wt. % and 26.8 wt.%) was determined by titration. The recycle base contained varioustetramethylammonium salts plus aniline and low levels of other organicimpurities. One of the salts is (TMA)₂CO₃, which contributes to theassay for recycle base, as the first equivalent titrates along withTMAH.

Conversion for the examples was calculated based on the amount ofunreacted nitrobenzene remaining in the final coupling reaction mass.Conversion was assumed to be 100% if no nitrobenzene was detected.Selectivity is defined by the following molar ratio:(p-NDPA+4-NDPA)/(p-NDPA+4-NDPA+azobenzene+phenazine). 4-NDPA is4-nitrodiphenylamine and p-NDPA is 4-nitrosodiphenylamine. In theexamples, “NB” is nitrobenzene, “t-Azo” is transazobenzene, “Phen” isphenazine, and “Other” refers to aniline and nitrobenzene couplingby-products, mostly 4-phenylazo-diphenylamine, and any unknowns.

EXAMPLE 1

This example provides reference information, for discussion of theeffect of using hydrogen peroxide during the coupling reaction in theother examples. The procedure for Runs 1-3 is similar to that of Example2, except using plant recycle TMAH (26.8 wt. %) and plant recycleaniline, with base concentration and drying at 62 torr and reaction at60 torr. The procedure for Runs 4-6 is to charge 145.28 g of freshaniline (1.56 moles) and 87.36 g of aqueous pre-concentrated fresh TMAHsolution (36.0 wt. %, 0.345 moles TMAH) to a 500-mL round bottom flaskequipped with a thermocouple, heating mantle, subsurface feed tubes fornitrobenzene and peroxide or water and a Teflon paddle stirrer. Withpressure at 70 torr, the mixture is heated to remove 18 mL of water,along with aniline, (˜30 minutes) and then nitrobenzene feed (36.93 g,0.30 moles) is started. Temperature rises from about 66-67° C. to 80° C.during the reaction period, while water and aniline are boiled off.Table 1 gives the times for nitrobenzene feed and reaction hold for allsix runs. Water and aniline are boiled off during the hold. Batches forRuns 4-6 are quenched with 20 mL of water after the hold period. Thehydrogen peroxide charge is 20.40 g (0.03 moles) of a 5 wt. % aqueoussolution concurrent with nitrobenzene. Since water can affectselectivity by protecting TMAH from degradation and by shifting reactionequilibriums, water is fed concurrently with nitrobenzene for directcomparison with peroxide.

The example illustrates that both shorter nitrobenzene feed time and theaddition of water can increase selectivity, although water is not veryeffective for the longer feed time. However, peroxide gave the highestselectivity, 1.9% greater than water addition. More importantly, for acommercial process that involves recycles and waste disposal, aqueousperoxide greatly reduced the levels of two key by-products compared towater alone, viz. azobenzene (by 39%) and phenazine (by 36%). Replicatebaseline runs by a slightly different procedure gave selectivities of92.7% and 92.6%, indicating that the experimental results reportedherein are very reproducible. Moreover, the replicates indicate that thesmall selectivity differences, such as 1.9% higher for peroxide vs.water, are indeed significant. TABLE 1 Background Data for HydrogenPeroxide Comparison Time (m) Conv Selec Batch Product Composition (wt.%) Additive Feed Hold (%) (%) p-NDPA 4-NDPA t-Azo Phen 1. None 110 20˜99 91.5 25.36 2.30 2.01 0.32 2. Water¹ 110 20 ˜99 91.9 26.24 2.30 2.010.29 3. Water² 110 20 ˜98 91.5 25.91 2.45 2.14 0.25 4. None 80 40 100.094.0 26.61 2.32 1.31 0.37 5. Water³ 80 40 100.0 95.3 30.11 2.02 1.040.39 6. Peroxide⁴ 80 40 100.0 97.2 31.42 2.42 0.63 0.25¹H₂O/NB = 0.56 molar;²H₂O/NB = 1.9 molar; average of two batches³Water charge weight equal to 5 wt. % peroxide charge weight, H₂O/NB =3.8 molar⁴5.0 wt. % hydrogen peroxide aqueous solution at H₂O₂/NB = 0.10

EXAMPLE 2

Some of the runs in the following examples had relatively lowconversions, because the procedure used a fixed nitrobenzene feed timeplus hold time rather than holding the batches to reaction completion.This example shows the effect of an extended hold period on selectivity.

The procedure is to charge 432.85 g of plant recycle base (24.4 wt. %TMAH, 1.6 moles) to a 1. L water/glycol jacketed reactor. Beginagitation at 150 rpm and boil off 92 mL water at constant pressure of 65torr, with the water bath temperature starting at 72° C. and increasingby 1° C. per 10 mL of water removed. Then charge 301.50 g (3.24 moles)of fresh aniline via vacuum. Continue to remove water plus aniline at 65torr, by raising the bath temperature I° C. per 9 mL of water removed,while continuously charging 120 mL of aniline from a sidearmpressure-vented dropping funnel. When 72 mL of water has been removed(164 mL total), begin co-feeding 123.11 g of nitrobenzene (1.00 moles)and 27.20 g hydrogen peroxide (10 wt. % aqueous solution, 0.08 moles)subsurface via peristaltic pumps over a period of 80 minutes.Continuously add 60 mL of aniline during the reaction step, whileholding pressure at 65 torr and boiling off water plus aniline.Gradually increase bath temperature in 0.5° C. increments to achieve 91°C. in the bath and 80-82° C. in the reactor by the end of the reactionstep. Initiate the hold period by reducing pressure to 60 torr andincreasing the bath and reactor temperatures by another 1° C. Continueremoving water plus aniline during an extended hold.

This example shows that holding a low conversion batch to essentiallycomplete conversion had only a minimum impact on selectivity. In theexamples following this one, conversion ranged from 73.4% to 100%. Theseresults show that driving conversion from 89.3% to 99.8% reducedselectivity by only 0.5% and going from 96% to 99.8% conversion reducedselectivity by only 0.2%. Therefore, low conversion for some runs in thefollowing examples does not affect the conclusions. TABLE 2 PeroxideBatch Profile of Extended Hold Hold Time Conv Selec Batch ProductComposition (wt. %) (minutes) (%) (%) p-NDPA 4-NDPA t-Azo Phen 0 89.397.5 22.78 1.50 0.36 0.20 10 93.9 97.2 24.37 1.72 0.49 0.21 20 95.9 97.225.00 1.82 0.49 0.20 30 97.1 97.1 25.05 1.86 0.51 0.22 40 97.9 97.125.45 1.91 0.53 0.21 50 98.5 97.1 25.70 1.95 0.53 0.21 60 98.9 97.126.07 2.00 0.55 0.22 70 99.2 97.1 26.22 2.01 0.56 0.22 80 99.5 97.126.48 2.04 0.57 0.22 90 99.7 97.0 26.59 2.06 0.58 0.22 100 99.8 97.026.83 2.09 0.61 0.22

EXAMPLE 3

A 3-factor, 8-run Design of Experiments (DOE) with pressure,nitrobenzene feed rate, and peroxide as variables was executed.Concentration of peroxide (5 wt. % aqueous solution) and H₂O₂/NB (0.1molar ratio) were arbitrarily selected for the four runs using peroxide.To a 500-mL round bottom flask equipped with a eating mantle,thermocouple, subsurface feed tubes for nitrobenzene and peroxide and aTeflon paddle stirrer was charged 130.02 g of recycle base (24.4 wt. %),which was then concentrated to 31 wt. % by boiling off 28 mL of water atthe pressure indicated in Table 3. Then 145.28 g of aniline was addedand another 16 mL of water was removed, along with aniline (44 mL totalwater). Then nitrobenzene feed of 36.93 g was started, with continuedboil off of water and aniline. When peroxide was used, the 20.40 g of 5wt. % peroxide solution was co-fed with nitrobenzene at an appropriatefeed rate to finish with nitrobenzene. Batches were held as describedbelow, then quenched with 20 mL of water. Reactions were run at 80° C.and either 65 or 95 torr (specified in the design) on a 0.3 mole scale.Hold periods were fixed at 20 minutes for the 110 minute nitrobenzenefeed and 45 minutes for the 70 minute nitrobenzene feed, both withcontinued boil off of water and aniline.

Results in Table 3 show that selectivity is consistently higher whenperoxide is used at a low level and the range is much smaller (96.1 to96.6% with vs. 89.8 to 94.8% without) for variations of reactionpressure and nitrobenzene feed rate. Also, with peroxide more 4-NDPA wasmade relative to azobenzene, whereas without, nearly equimolar amountswere generated. Less 4-NDPA (by 30-40%) was made with peroxide at thelonger nitrobenzene feed time and in all runs, much less azobenzene andphenazine were made with peroxide. Example 1 showed that nitrobenzenefeed rate can affect selectivity without peroxide and this example showsthat peroxide reduces the effect of both nitrobenzene feed rate andreaction pressure, which is unexpected. TABLE 3 Three FactorExperimental Design for Peroxide) Run Nr. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Design TargetsNB Feed Rate (m) 75 75 110 110 75 75 110 110 Pressure (torr) 95 65 95 6595 65 95 65 Peroxide Yes Yes Yes Yes No No No No Actual NB Feed (m) 7476 113 111 73 74 115 112 Results Conversion (%) 98.1 99.8 89.6 96.8 99.7100.0 98.9 100.0 Selectivity (%) 96.1 96.4 96.6 96.5 94.8 92.8 94.5 89.8Batch Product Composition (wt. %) p-NDPA 24.05 26.06 22.76 24.31 24.3124.23 23.78 22.35 4-NDPA 1.78 2.13 1.20 1.83 1.66 2.21 1.71 2.98t-Azobenzene 0.85 0.77 0.62 0.68 1.09 1.58 1.11 2.28 Phenazine 0.12 0.180.14 0.20 0.21 0.30 0.25 0.34

EXAMPLE 4

A refining DOE was completed to assess both 1) amount of peroxide and 2)peroxide concentration for the coupling reaction. The procedure was thesame as for Example 3, except for the mole ratios and peroxideconcentrations listed in Table 4 and a nitrobenzene feed time of about70 minutes with a 30 minute hold. Table 4 shows that with a fastnitrobenzene feed rate, selectivity is relatively independent ofperoxide concentration, especially at the lower molar ratio. This issurprising, because Example 1 showed that adding water can increaseselectivity and the runs with 5 wt. % peroxide had 6.33 times the amountof water as 25 wt. % peroxide. The results also show that selectivitycan be affected by the amount of oxidant. A comparison of Runs withequal peroxide concentration in Table 4 shows that the higher mole ratiogave lower selectivity in each case. Again, this is surprising, sincetwice the amount of water was added at the higher mole ratio. So thebenefits of water and peroxide are not additive, as the effect ofperoxide predominates. TABLE 4 Refining Design of Experiments Run Nr. 12 3 4 Design Targets H₂O₂:NB, molar 0.10 0.10 0.20 0.20 PeroxideConcentration 5 wt. % 25 wt. % 5 wt. % 25 wt. % NB Feed Time (m) 68 7270 70 Relative Water Charge 6.33 1.0 12.7 2.0 Results Conversion (%)98.1 98.3 98.6 97.8 Selectivity (%) 96.4 96.0 92.8 93.8 Batch ProductComposition (wt. %) p-NDPA 25.62 24.41 27.86 25.40 4-NDPA 2.06 2.08 2.842.45 t-Azobenzene 0.80 0.79 2.05 1.53 Phenazine 0.14 0.21 0.13 0.16

EXAMPLE 5

This example further illustrates the effect of pressure on selectivitywhen peroxide is used. The batches were made by a procedure similar toExample 2, with a nitrobenzene feed time of 110 minutes, a hold time of20 minutes, a different sample of plant recycle base (26.8 wt. %) andplant recycle aniline instead of fresh. The results in Table 5 show thatpressure does not have an impact on selectivity when 30 wt. % peroxideis used, just as in Example 3 with 5 wt. % peroxide. This is additionalevidence that peroxide mitigates the effect of other reaction variables.TABLE 5 Effect of Reaction Pressure with Peroxide Pressure, mbara 80 160Selectivity (%) 95.56 95.52

EXAMPLE 6

Example 1 showed that shorter nitrobenzene feed time (80 minutes) alone,or with water, or with aqueous peroxide, can increase selectivity.Example 3 showed that for a fixed peroxide concentration and molarratio, nitrobenzene feed time (about 75 minutes vs. about 110 minutes)had little effect on selectivity. Example 4 showed that with a shortnitrobenzene feed time (about 70 minutes), selectivity is relativelyindependent of peroxide concentration, especially at the lower moleratio.

This example explores the effect of peroxide concentration onselectivity for a longer nitrobenzene feed time. A series of batcheswere made by a procedure similar to that of Example 5. Also, peroxidefeed for the 0.064 mole ratio runs was via a piston pump (see Example14). Peroxide concentration was varied from 5 wt. % to 35 wt. %, withH₂O₂/NB=0.1 and 0.064. The results in Table 6 show that also for alonger nitrobenzene feed time, selectivity is essentially independent ofperoxide concentration. Moreover, phenazine level increases onlyslightly as significantly less water is charged with the peroxide, whichis consistent with Example 4. With a longer nitrobenzene feed time, therate of removal of water relative to the rate of nitrobenzene charge isgreater than for a shorter nitrobenzene feed time. So as less water ischarged with the peroxide, the batches become even drier. However, eventhe lowest water charge in Table 6 has significantly higher selectivitythan for water alone with a 110 minute nitrobenzene feed in Table 1.This illustrates that although water and peroxide can both play a rolein increasing selectivity, the effect of peroxide is more important.Furthermore, since water can influence the rate of formation of theMeisenheimer complex and the rate of its oxidation by nitrobenzene, itshould be possible to improve selectivity with peroxide by tuningH₂O₂/NB to match the Meisenheimer concentration in the batch. TABLE 6Effect of Peroxide Concentration Peroxide, H₂O₂/NB H₂O/NB Selec BatchProduct Composition (wt %) Wt. % Molar Molar (%) p-NDPA 4-NDPA t-AzoPhen 0 0 0 91.5 25.36 2.30 2.01 0.32 5 0.10 3.59 96.1 27.56 2.99 0.980.16 10 0.10 1.70 96.0 26.82 3.24 0.96 0.17 20 0.10 0.76 95.1 27.22 2.751.22 0.18 20 0.10 0.76 95.3 26.53 3.02 1.16 0.19 24.3 0.064 0.38 95.826.63 2.53 0.92 0.24 24.3 0.064 0.38 96.1 26.38 2.55 0.86 0.21 30 0.100.44 95.7 26.95 2.59 1.00 0.22 30 0.10 0.44 95.1 26.72 3.07 1.21 0.20 350.064 0.22 96.1 26.41 2.63 0.87 0.21 35 0.064 0.22 96.4 26.42 2.64 0.790.20

EXAMPLE 7

A series of coupling reactions were done with a fixed peroxideconcentration of 5 wt. % to determine the effect of temperature onselectivity. The procedure was as follows: Charge 130.02 g recycle base(24.4 wt. % TMAH) to 500-mL scale coupler and boil off 28 mL of water.Add 145.28 g aniline and remove another 16 mL of water, along withaniline (44 mL total water). Feed 36.93 g nitrobenzene concurrently with5 wt. % aqueous peroxide solution at H₂O₂/NB=0.08 molar, bothsubsurface, while boiling off water and aniline. Complete the co-feed in100-110 minutes at the temperatures indicated in Table 7 and at aconstant pressure of 65 torr. Hold for 30 minutes, while boiling offwater and aniline, and then quench with 20 mL of water.

The results in Table 7 illustrate the effect that the rates of formationand intramolecular oxidation of the Meisenheimer complex have onselectivity with peroxide. As temperature is increased, selectivityreaches a maximum at about 80° C. At lower temperatures, the rate ofMeisenheimer formation is too low for the rate of peroxide addition, sothat oxidation of aniline to azobenzene by peroxide increases. At highertemperatures, the higher rate of intramolecular Meisenheimer oxidationto p-NDPA reduces the amount of Meisenheimer available for reaction withperoxide, so that again oxidation of aniline to azobenzene by peroxideincreases. Also, the selectivity at 70° C. is higher than that obtainedwithout peroxide at otherwise comparable reaction conditions. Therefore,the effective range for this example can be extended down to about 65°C.

Thus, 80° C. is an apparent optimum that is dependent on the reactionprocedure. Any procedure change that will change the rate ofMeisenheimer formation, such as changing the rate of water removal, willaffect selectivity with peroxide. This could shift the optimumselectivity to a different temperature. Moreover, selectivity can beincreased at lower and higher temperatures simply by adjusting the molarratio of H₂O₂/NB to match the rate of formation or rate ofintramolecular oxidation of the Meisenheimer. Thus selectivity ishighest at 80° C. for this particular reaction procedure withH₂O₂/NB=0.08 molar. However, the optimum temperature will vary withother variables, such as water level in the reactor and H₂O₂/NB moleratio. Furthermore, varying temperature will require a different moleratio of H₂O₂/NB for maximum selectivity. Therefore, the effectiveranges given in other examples are not absolute. TABLE 7 Effect ofReaction Temperature with Peroxide Temp Conv Selec Batch ProductComposition (wt. %) (° C.) (%) (%) p-NDPA 4-NDPA t-Aza Phen Others 7073.4 94.2 16.93 1.64 0.94 0.11 0.13 75 93.8 96.6 24.60 1.78 0.67 0.180.22 80 97.4 97.0 26.35 1.94 0.61 0.18 0.29 85 99.8 95.8 26.68 2.80 0.920.27 0.27 90 100.0 89.8 25.11 4.16 2.74 0.27 0.67

EXAMPLE 8

Two sets of coupling reactions were done with fixed peroxideconcentrations to determine the effective mole ratio range that wouldgive increased selectivity. The procedure for 5 wt. % peroxide wasbasically the same as for Example 3. Peroxide and nitrobenzene were fedover 105-110 minutes, with a 20 minute hold period for reaction at 80°C. and 65 torr. The procedure for 30 wt. % was similar to Example 5.

FIG. 1 and Table 8 show that the effective range for 5 wt. % peroxide isabout H₂O₂/NB=0.01-0.20, the preferred range is about H₂O₂/NB=0.03-0.16and the most preferred range is about H₂O₂/NB=0.06-0.12. The optimummolar ratio with 5 wt. % peroxide was H₂O₂/NB=0.07-0.09 for thisprocedure, which is about the same as the mole % of 4-NDPA that was madefrom nitrobenzene. So peroxide reacts in high selectivity to make 4-NDPAwith minimum formation of azobenzene.

This is a surprising result, due to the very large molar excess ofaniline that is available to be oxidized to azobenzene. The effectivemole ratio range for 30 wt. % peroxide is about 0.01-0.25. An optimumcannot be derived from the data, but it appears to be within 0.06-0.21,which is shifted higher than for 5 wt. % peroxide. A more preferredrange appears to be within 0.08-0.17. So the effective mole ratio range,preferred range and most preferred range for peroxide are expected tovary with some process variables, such as peroxide concentration,impurity levels in recycle streams, reaction temperature, water removalrate and nitrobenzene feed rate. Therefore, these ranges are notabsolute for peroxide, but rather representative. It is envisaged thatthe effective range could extend to H₂O₂/NB=0.01-0.4 with recycle baseor perhaps even somewhat wider. TABLE 8 Optimization of Peroxide MolarCharge with Recycle Base H₂O₂ H₂O₂/NB Conv Selec Batch ProductComposition (wt. %) wt. % Molar (%) (%) p-NDPA 4-NDPA t-Azo Phen 5 0.00100.0 91.7 23.78 2.76 1.84 0.35 0.04 99.2 93.7 24.16 2.39 1.31 0.33 0.0698.9 96.0 25.14 2.36 0.75 0.29 0.07 98.0 96.9 25.22 1.95 0.55 0.24 0.0898.3 96.9 25.66 2.04 0.57 0.23 0.09 97.6 96.9 25.46 1.94 0.59 0.20 0.1097.6 96.7 25.80 1.97 0.68 0.19 0.12 98.3 96.0 26.02 2.15 0.91 0.17 0.1697.5 93.9 25.05 2.11 1.42 0.20 0.20 97.0 92.2 25.19 2.27 1.97 0.16 300.00 ˜99.0 91.5 25.36 2.30 2.01 0.32 0.05 ˜98.5 92.1 26.00 3.08 2.040.23 0.10 ˜96.5 95.7 26.95 2.59 1.00 0.22 0.10 ˜97.0 95.1 26.72 3.071.21 0.20 0.20 ˜94.5 92.7 25.94 3.04 1.92 0.16

EXAMPLE 9

An optimization study was done for fresh base with peroxide to examinethe effect of base quality. The procedure was similar to Example 3 for 5and 20 wt. %, with a 126.89 g charge of 25 wt. % base, and to Example 10for 35 wt. %. As seen in FIG. 2 and Table 9, fresh base gave flatter andwider optimization curves vs. recycle base. Moreover, the optimum moleratio and effective range varied with concentration, the maximumselectivity was lower vs. recycle base and selectivity increased afterthe initial optimum was passed. The upturns are due to the higher watercharge as mole ratio increased, which did not occur with 35 wt. %peroxide, for which the least water was added. Selectivity rose becausewater inhibits oxidation of Meisenheimer by nitrobenzene, so that moreis oxidized by peroxide. The results show that at the conditions usedfor Examples 8 and 9, peroxide is more effective with recycle base.Moreover, the salts in recycle base must moderate the effect of water,since the selectivity upturn did not occur with it. Even so, theselectivity increase with fresh base is substantial. The effective rangefor 35 wt. % peroxide is about 0.01-0.33 and if water was removed fasterwith 20 wt. % peroxide, the curve tracks to an effective range of about0.01-0.46. Since nitrobenzene feed rate can extend well beyond 110minutes for a commercial process, the effective range could well extendto 0.01-0.5 or even somewhat wider. As discussed above, increasingnitrobenzene feed rate gives wetter batches with fresh base, whichincreases selectivity and should give sharper optimization curves. Thus,the effective range will vary with such variables as nitrobenzene feedrate and water removal rate, but an effective range of about 0.01-0.6should cover all possibilities. The results with fresh base should alsoapply to recycle base that has been recovered by electrolysis, such asdescribed in WO 2002034372, or by any other procedure. TABLE 9Optimization of Peroxide Molar Charge with Fresh Base Peroxide H₂O₂/NBCONV SELEC Batch Composition (wt. %) Strength Molar % % An NB 4-NO 4-Nt-Azo Phen  5 wt. % 0.00 100.0 91.6 44.7 0.00 25.1 2.10 1.85 0.42 0.04100.0 93.4 43.2 0.01 26.6 2.08 1.45 0.41 0.08 100.0 94.2 41.4 0.00 26.71.92 1.27 0.35 0.12 100.0 94.3 41.8 0.00 27.0 2.11 1.24 0.36 0.16 100.094.4 39.7 0.00 27.6 2.37 1.28 0.35 0.20 100.0 95.2 38.3 0.00 28.4 2.291.21 0.20 0.30 99.9 96.2 37.6 0.00 27.1 2.63 0.88 0.19 20 wt. % 0.00100.0 92.2 46.8 0.00 25.4 1.88 1.69 0.40 0.10 100.0 95.1 45.7 0.00 25.62.10 0.94 0.36 0.15 100.0 95.9 45.6 0.00 26.6 2.20 0.85 0.28 0.20 99.996.0 44.2 0.02 27.0 2.13 0.84 0.27 0.25 100.0 95.6 42.6 0.00 27.5 2.551.05 0.22 0.30 100.0 95.0 43.2 0.00 27.1 2.62 1.20 0.22 0.40 98.9 95.243.0 0.20 26.1 2.56 1.11 0.20 35 wt. % 0.00 100.0 92.8 46.7 0.00 25.51.73 1.55 0.38 0.00 100.0 92.7 46.5 0.00 25.4 1.95 1.56 0.41 0.10 100.094.8 45.6 0.00 25.8 2.02 1.05 0.35 0.15 100.0 95.3 45.4 0.00 26.6 1.951.00 0.28 0.20 99.9 95.0 44.9 0.02 26.4 2.07 1.11 0.26 0.30 100.0 93.443.9 0.00 26.4 2.43 1.63 0.23 0.40 99.6 92.4 43.2 0.08 26.0 2.56 1.950.20 0.50 98.8 91.4 41.8 0.21 25.8 2.67 1.28 0.17

EXAMPLE 10

This example further illustrates the effect of nitrobenzene feed timeand base quality on selectivity. The procedure was similar to Example 3,except that for fresh base, 87.36 g of pre-concentrated base (36 wt. %)was used and water removal after aniline addition was only 18 mL. Allbatches had H₂O₂/NB=0.1 molar ratio. The results in Table 10 show thatwithout peroxide, fresh base gave higher selectivity than recycle base,regardless of nitrobenzene feed time. However, the situation changedsignificantly when peroxide was used. With peroxide, recycle base gavehigher selectivity than fresh base for the longer nitrobenzene feedtime, but equivalent selectivity for the shorter feed time.

These results can be partially explained by the effect of nitrobenzenefeed time and base quality on water level in the batch. For example, thesalts dissolved in recycle base elevate the boiling point, so that atconstant reaction temperature and pressure, recycle base batches will bewetter than fresh base batches. However, fresh base has a higherconcentration of TMAH, as determined by titration, than recycle base.Recycle base contains TMA₂CO₃ as the largest impurity and the firstequivalent of TMA₂CO₃ titrates as TMAH. For example, 25 wt. % recyclebase with 10 wt. % TMA₂CO₃ is actually only 20.6 wt. % TMAH. SinceTMA₂CO₃ is a less effective base for the coupling reaction than TMAH,fresh base gives better reactivity. Without peroxide, the betterreactivity explains the higher selectivity with fresh base in spite ofthe drier conditions. So with peroxide, equivalent to higher selectivityfor recycle base is surprising, especially since the actual recycle basethat was used was only 24.4 wt. % assay by titration. Peroxide is ableto overcome the inefficiency due to low TMAH level and salts dissolvedin recycle base. TABLE 10 Effect of Peroxide with Variable Base QualityPressure, torr 95 65-70 65 65-70 65-70 NB Feed Time Target (m) 75-8075-80 105-110 75-80 110-130 Peroxide (5 wt. %) Yes Yes Yes No No BaseQuality Selectivity (%) Recycle 96.1 96.4 96.5 92.8 89.8 Fresh 96.4 97.294.2 * 94.0 91.8* Average of 0.08 & 0.12 mole ratios from Table 9; started with 25 wt. %TMAH

EXAMPLE 11

It has been reported in U.S. Pat. No. 5,117,063, incorporated herein byreference, and related patents that the amount of water present duringthe coupling reaction has a profound effect on the molar ratio of(p-NDPA+4-NDPA)/(2-NDPA+Phenazine). Data in Example 4 indicated thatwater added with peroxide has minor impact on the amount of phenazinethat is made (2-NDPA is not observed to form at all). This is furtherillustrated in the FIGS. 3 and 4. Data in FIG. 3 (from Example 6) showthat phenazine level increased only slightly for a seven-fold increasein peroxide concentration, despite the 16-fold decrease in water amountof water added with the peroxide. Data in FIG. 4 (from Example 8) showthat phenazine level decreased significantly as the H₂O₂/NB mole ratioincreased. However, phenazine level was essentially independent ofperoxide concentration, despite an eight-fold higher water amount addedwith 5 wt. % vs. 30 wt. % peroxide. Since water added had little effectat constant peroxide addition, this indicates that peroxide addition hasa greater influence than water addition. This is additional evidencethat peroxide has modified the coupling reaction system to minimize sidereactions.

EXAMPLE 12

This example illustrates that a partial feed of peroxide can increasethe efficiency of the peroxide. The equipment is the same as for Example2 and the basic procedure is similar. Charge 432.85 g of 24.4 wt. %recycle base, begin agitation at 150 rpm and then heat to boil off 92 mLof water at 65 torr. Add 301.50 g of aniline and boil off water plusaniline at 65 torr, while continuing to add more aniline. When 164 mL ofwater plus aniline has been removed, begin to feed 123.11 g ofnitrobenzene over the time indicated in Table 11, while continuing toadd more aniline and boil off water plus aniline. The aniline chargeduring drying plus reaction is 180.90 g. Aqueous peroxide solution isfed concurrently with nitrobenzene over the times indicated in Table 11.Reaction conditions are 80° C. and 65 torr. After the completion ofnitrobenzene feed, hold at 60 torr for 30 minutes and then quench with50 mL of water.

Runs 1 and 2 in Table 11 show that it is possible to obtain somewhathigher selectivity when peroxide is fed for only part of thenitrobenzene feed time. The benefits from this could either be theincreased selectivity, or reduced peroxide charge (and hence cost) forthe same selectivity. For example, Runs 3 and 4 show only a small dropin selectivity (0.37%) for a 25% reduction in the peroxide charge fromthe use of partial feed. TABLE 11 Comparison of Full and PartialPeroxide Feed Run Number 1 2 3 4 H₂O₂ Feed Profile Full Partial PartialFull H₂O₂ Feed, % of NB Feed 99 61 78 100 Time H₂O₂ Concentration, wt. %15.0 15.0 22.5 22.5* H₂O₂/NB mole ratio, Overall 0.04 0.04 0.06 0.08H₂O₂/NB mole ratio, during 0.04 0.066 0.077 0.08 Feed NB Feed Time,minutes 107 109 110 107 H₂O₂ Feed Start, minutes 0 21 11 0 H₂O₂ FeedEnd, minutes 106 87 97 107 Conversion, % 99.12 98.71 97.80 97.55Selectivity, % 94.12 94.74 96.33 96.70*Average of virtually identical results for 15% and 30% peroxide; thisis consistent with Example 5, which shows flat results for 20 to 30%peroxide.

EXAMPLE 13

This example compares the effect of base quality with partial feed ofthe peroxide. Equipment is the same as for Example 2 and the basicprocedure is similar. The main difference is that the start of peroxidefeed was delayed by about 5 minutes and ended about 10 minutes ahead ofthe nitrobenzene feed time, which was a target of 105 minutes. Peroxidewas charged as an aqueous 24.3 wt. % solution, with H₂O₂/NB=0.064 molar.The results in Table 12 indicate that under the conditions of theexperiment, plant recycle base, fresh base and base recovered byelectrolysis from plant recycle base give equivalent results. Thisdemonstrates that recovered base is suitable for use with peroxide,either alone or in combination with recycle and/or fresh base. It alsofurther demonstrates that peroxide overcomes the advantage that freshbase has without peroxide. TABLE 12 Comparison of Base Types Base TypeBase Assay (wt. %) Selectivity (%) Plant Recycle 24.4 96.04 Fresh 25.096.20 Recovered by Electrolysis 20.2 96.16

EXAMPLE 14

This example illustrates that good contact of peroxide with theMeisenheimer complex is essential for optimum selectivity. Table 13compares feeding peroxide in the lab via a peristaltic pump vs. a pistonpump that delivers peroxide in 20 μL increments. The procedure wassimilar to that of Example 2, except that for the lower mole ratio runs,peroxide feed was started 5 minutes later and was completed 10 minutesearlier than nitrobenzene. The data in Table 13 show that theperistaltic pump gave erratic and lower selectivity than the pistonpump. Example 12 shows that the comparison of the two mole ratios withpartial vs. full feed is valid. The small volumetric inputs of thepiston pump ensures that the peroxide is quickly dispersed for intimatecontact with the Meisenheimer. The larger slugs of peroxide input fromthe peristaltic pump gave worse dispersion, which reduced the efficiencyof peroxide interaction, resulting in lower selectivity. Good dispersionis especially important at higher peroxide concentrations, because ofthe localized higher mole ratio of peroxide (in a drop of peroxide) toreaction mass. This supports the need to introduce peroxide at the pointof highest Meisenheimer concentration. TABLE 13 Comparison of PeroxidePumps for Dispersion H₂O₂ Conc. H₂O₂/NB, H₂O₂ Pump Nr. of Runs (wt. %)molar Selectivity (%) Peristaltic 1 24.3 0.064 96.05 Piston 2 24.3 0.06495.82-96.09 Peristaltic 3 35.0 0.10 93.61-94.36 Piston 2 35.0 0.06496.07-96.39

EXAMPLE 15

This example demonstrates the suitability of aqueous 50 wt. % hydrogenperoxide for the coupling of aniline with nitrobenzene in the presenceof a strong organic base. The procedure of Example 13 was followed,except that aqueous 50 wt. % hydrogen peroxide was used. The peroxidesolution was carefully fed subsurface into the reactor by hand controlof the peristaltic pump to give as smooth an addition as possible,considering the small amount of material to charge (4.35 g). Aselectivity of 95.56% was obtained, which is only slightly lower thanselectivities with lower peroxide concentrations. The results of Example14 show that if a small piston pump had been available for thisexperiment, 50 wt. % peroxide would most likely have given selectivityidentical to the lower concentrations. The conclusion in any case isthat 50 wt. % is a suitable concentration for hydrogen peroxide.

COMPARATIVE EXAMPLE 1

This example demonstrates that hydrogen peroxide is superior to air asan oxidant for the coupling of aniline with nitrobenzene in the presenceof a strong organic base. Several coupling batches were made by aprocedure similar to that of Example 1, wherein air was used as theoxidant at various flow rates. The results in Table 14 show that air isimpractical as an oxidant, as flow rates required for a significantincrease in selectivity would overload a typical plant condenser.

Moreover, the highest selectivity obtained is well below theselectivities obtained with peroxide over a range of conditions. TABLE14 Effect of Air on Selectivity Air Flow, Based on 700 g Total Mass in1-L Scale Lab Batch Lab Flow Plant Equivalent Selectivity Air Inlet(mL/min) (Nm³/hr) (%) No Air (3 batches) 0.0 0.0 93.0-93.1 Subsurface2.6 20 93.1 Subsurface 14.2 110 93.5 Head Space 14.2 110 93.9 Subsurface58.4 450 94.0 Typical Condenser Design Flow Rate: 18

COMPARATIVE EXAMPLE 2

This example examines the effect of peroxide with a strong inorganicbase and phase transfer catalyst (PTC), by the following procedure.Aniline (99%, 22.58 g, 240 mmoles), nitrobenzene (99%, 4.97 g, 40mmoles), hydrogen peroxide (50 wt. % aqueous, molar amount indicatedbelow in FIG. 5), water (water is added such that the total water iskept constant at 2.16 g), potassium hydroxide (86% ground powder, 7.83g, 120 mmoles) and tetramethylammonium chloride (97%, 4.52 g, 40 mmoles)was charged to a 50-mL round bottom flask equipped with a magneticstirrer. Peroxide was charged to the reaction mixture before adding KOH& TMACl. Then the flask was quickly stoppered and the reaction wasallowed to proceed for 1 hour at 60° C. In this example, azoxybenzeneand 2-NDPA were obtained as reaction by-products that were not obtainedwith TMAH. So these byproducts were included in the calculation ofselectivity.

FIG. 5 shows that with a strong inorganic base and a phase transfercatalyst, selectivity increases steadily as the mole ratio ofperoxide/NB is increased from 0 to unity. However, with a strong organicbase, i.e. TMAH, there were optimum mole ratios with both fresh andrecycle base. It is unexpected that there is an optimum mole ratio witha strong organic base, but not with a strong inorganic base and PTC thatgenerate the same strong organic base in situ. Moreover, the inorganicsystem gave 2-NDPA+azoxybenzene levels of 1.1% to 2.4%, whereas none wasformed with TMAH. Again, it is surprising that these by-products areformed with a strong inorganic base, but not with a strong organic base.

1-25. (canceled)
 26. A method of producing 4-aminodiphenylamine or a4-aminodiphenylamine derivative, the method comprising the steps of: a.contacting an aniline or aniline derivative and nitrobenzene; b.reacting the aniline or aniline derivative and nitrobenzene in thepresence of a strong base and an oxidant comprising hydrogen peroxide toform a 4-aminodiphenylamine intermediate; and c. reducing the4-aminodiphenylamine intermediate in a reduction reaction to produce4-aminodiphenylamine.
 27. The method of claim 26, wherein the aniline oraniline derivative and nitrobenzene are brought into contact in thepresence of the strong base before contacting the aniline or anilinederivative and the nitrobenzene with the oxidant.
 28. The method ofclaim 27, wherein the temperature of the aniline or aniline derivativeand nitrobenzene is increased to at least about 65° C. prior to contactwith the hydrogen peroxide.
 29. The method of claim 26, wherein theaniline or aniline derivative is reacted with nitrobenzene at a molarratio of aniline or aniline derivative to nitrobenzene of about 5.5 orlower.
 30. The method of claim 26, further comprising the step ofreductively alkylating the 4-aminodiphenylamine to form an alkylatedderivative of the 4-aminodiphenylamine.
 31. The method of claim 26,wherein the aniline or aniline derivative and nitrobenzene are reactedin a mixture comprising the strong organic base and the oxidantcomprising hydrogen peroxide in an amount of from about 0.01 to about0.20 moles of hydrogen peroxide per mole of nitrobenzene.
 32. The methodof claim 31, wherein the mixture comprises from about 0.020 to about0.064 moles of the hydrogen peroxide per mole of nitrobenzene.
 33. Themethod of claim 26, wherein the reaction temperature in step (b) is fromabout 65° C. to about 90° C.
 34. The method of claim 26, wherein thehydrogen peroxide is supplied as an aqueous solution comprising fromabout 3 wt. % to about 5 wt. % hydrogen peroxide.
 35. The method ofclaim 26, wherein the strong base is tetramethylammonium hydroxide. 36.The method of claim 26 wherein the hydrogen peroxide is supplied as anaqueous solution comprising from about 3 wt. % to about 7 wt. % hydrogenperoxide in an amount of from about 0.01 to about 0.5 moles of hydrogenperoxide to moles of nitrobenzene.
 37. The method of claim 26, whereinthe hydrogen peroxide is supplied as an aqueous solution comprising fromabout 15 wt. % to about 25 wt. % hydrogen peroxide in an amount of fromabout 0.01 to about 0.45 moles of hydrogen peroxide to moles ofnitrobenzene.
 38. The method of claim 26 wherein the hydrogen peroxideis supplied as an aqueous solution comprising from about 25 wt. % toabout 40 wt. % hydrogen peroxide in an amount of from about 0.01 toabout 0.35 moles of hydrogen peroxide to moles of nitrobenzene.
 39. Themethod of claim 26, wherein the strong base is recycled from theproducts of the reduction reaction and contacted with the aniline oraniline derivative and nitrobenzene.
 40. The method of claim 39, whereinthe nitrobenzene has a feed time of about 100 minutes or less.
 41. Themethod of claim 40 wherein the reaction temperature is from about 65° C.to about 90° C.
 42. A method of producing a rubber product comprisingthe steps of: a. contacting an aniline or aniline derivative andnitrobenzene; b. reacting the aniline or aniline derivative andnitrobenzene in the presence of a strong base and an oxidant comprisinghydrogen peroxide to form a 4-aminodiphenylamine intermediate; c.reducing the 4-aminodiphenylamine intermediate in a reduction reactionto produce 4-aminodiphenylamine; d. reductively alkylating the4-aminodiphenylamine to form an alkylated derivative of the4-aminodiphenylamine; and e. incorporating the alkylated derivative ofthe 4-aminodiphenylamine into a rubber product.
 43. The method of claim42, wherein the aniline or aniline derivative and nitrobenzene arebrought into contact in the presence of the strong base beforecontacting the aniline or aniline derivative and nitrobenzene with theoxidant.
 44. The method of claim 42, wherein the aniline or anilinederivative is reacted with nitrobenzene at an aniline or anilinederivative to nitrobenzene molar ratio of 5.5 or lower.
 45. A product ofmanufacture comprising rubber and a compound selected from the groupconsisting of: a. a 4-aminodiphenylamine intermediate produced by thesteps of: i. contacting an aniline or aniline derivative andnitrobenzene; and ii. reacting the aniline or aniline derivative andnitrobenzene in the presence of a strong base and an oxidant comprisinghydrogen peroxide to form a 4-aminodiphenylamine intermediate; b.4-aminodiphenylamine produced by reducing the 4-aminodiphenylamineintermediate produced by performing step (a) above in a reductionreaction to produce the 4-aminodiphenylamine; and c. an alkylatedderivative of 4-aminodiphenylamine produced by reductively alkylatingthe 4-aminodiphenylamine produced by performing steps (a) and (b) aboveto form the alkylated derivative of the 4-aminodiphenylamine.